The place where we dwell 3rd edition pdf download

The place where we dwell 3rd edition pdf download

The Place Where We Dwell: Reading and Writing about New York City,See, that’s what the app is perfect for.

The NEW third edition of The Place Where We Dwell inspires an animated discussion and to sustain conversations through several defined themes such as city life, immigration, urban education, art and design, current issues, and the waterfront Web · The Place Where We Dwell 3Rd Edition PDF Book Details. Product details Publisher: Timber Press; Illustrated edition (February 7, ) Language: English Web · Place Where We Dwell: Reading and Writing about New York City | eBay. The Place Where We Dwell 3rd Edition Pdf Download Free; The Place Where We Dwell WebShowing all editions for 'The place where we dwell: reading and writing about New York City' Sort by: Format; All Formats (4) Print book (4) Refine Your Search; Year. (1) WebThe first edition ofPlace and Experienceestablished Jeff Malpas as one of the leading philosophers and thinkers of place and space and provided a creative and refreshing ... read more

Chapter 6. SECTION II: Literary New York Fiction Herman Melville, Bartleby , the Scrivener: A Story of Wall Street Stephen Crane, A Dark-Brown Dog Edith Wharton, Mrs. Henry, The Making of a New Yorker John Dos Passos, I. Poetry Hart Crane, The Bridge Ezra Pound, In a Station of the Metro Edna ST. Details Print Product Only SA,CP, Pak, all Print. Skip to main content. Toggle navigation. Sign In. RETURN TO SEARCH RESULTS. The Place Where We Dwell: Reading and Writing about New York City Author s : Juanita But , Sean M Scanlan , Mark Noonan Edition: 3 Copyright: Pages: This product is for a printed text book only. OVERVIEW TABLE OF CONTENTS AUTHOR BIO Many outsiders might view New York City as inscrutable - a place too vast and complex to understand - never mind to live in. The Place Where We Dwell: Reading and Writing about New York City : Includes numerous essays that provide and demonstrate details and critical reflection that students could incorporate into their own writing.

Examines the rhetorical strategy of comparison and contrast. Provides exemplary models of exposition, analysis, and argumentation and offer a broad context for student response. There would be no problem at all dealing with half a million Jews. It was then an appalling shock when five Arab armies were defeated by half a million Jews with very limited weaponry. It remains shameful, humiliating. This was mentioned at the time and has been ever since. The Western form of anti-Semitism—the cosmic, satanic version of Jew hatred—provided solace to wounded feelings. It came to the Middle East in several stages. The first stage was almost entirely Christian, brought by European missionaries and diplomats. Its impact was principally on the local Christian minorities, where we find occasional recurrences of the previously little known blood libel. In the 15th and 16th centuries this had indeed been explicitly rejected in orders issued by Ottoman sultans.

It was now revived on a massive scale. The first major case was the Damascus blood libel in This kind of anti-Semitism continued to grow, at first on a small scale, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, with a limited response. At the time of the Dreyfus Affair in France, Muslim opinion was divided, some against Dreyfus, some supporting him. A prominent Muslim thinker of the time, the Egyptian Rashid Rida, wrote defending Dreyfus and attacking his persecutors, accusing them not of fanaticism, since they had no real religious beliefs, but of prejudice and envy. Despite this response, one consequence of the affair was the first translation into Arabic of a batch of European anti-Semitic writings.

Then came the Third Reich, with connections to the Arab world and, later, to other Muslim countries. It is interesting that the common image of the Germans pursuing the Arabs is the reverse of what happened. The Arabs were pursuing the Germans, and the Germans were very reluctant to get involved. Wolff recommended, and his government agreed, that as long as there was any hope of making a deal with the British Empire and establishing a kind of Aryan-Nordic axis in the West, it would be pointless to antagonize the British by supporting the Arabs.

But then things gradually changed, particularly after the Munich Conference in That was the turning point, when the German government finally decided that there was no deal to be made with Britain, no Aryan axis. Then the Germans turned their attention more seriously to the Arabs, responding at last to their approaches, and from then on the relationship developed very swiftly. In the French surrender gave the Nazis new opportunities for action in the Arab world. In Vichy-controlled Syria they were able for a while to establish an intelligence and propaganda base in the heart of the Arab East. From Syria they extended their activities to Iraq, where they helped to establish a pro-Nazi regime headed by Rashid Ali al-Gailani. This was followed by a series of such attacks in other Arab cities, both in the Middle East and in North Africa. While in Berlin, Rashid Ali was apparently disquieted by the language and, more especially, the terminology of anti-Semitism.

His concerns were authoritatively removed in an exchange of letters with an official spokesman of the German Nazi Party. In answer to a question from Rashid Ali as to whether anti-Semitism was also directed against Arabs, because they were part of the Semitic family, Professor Walter Gross, director of the Race Policy Office of the Nazi Party, explained with great emphasis, in a letter dated October 17, , that this was not the case and that anti-Semitism was concerned wholly and exclusively with Jews. On the contrary, he observed, the Nazis had always shown sympathy and support for the Arab cause against the Jews. There was still no great problem in German-Arab relations before, during, and even for a while after the war. The Nazi propaganda impact was immense. And anti-Semitism, European-style, became a very important part of that indoctrination.

The basis was there. A certain amount of translated literature was there. It became much more important after the events of , when the humiliated Arabs drew comfort from the doctrine of the Jews as a source of cosmic evil. This continued and grew with subsequent Arab defeats, particularly after the ultimate humiliation of the war, which Israel won in less than a week. The growth of European-style anti-Semitism in the Arab world derived in the main from this feeling of humiliation and the need therefore to ascribe to the Jews a role very different from their traditional role in Arab folklore and much closer to that of the anti-Semitic prototypes.

By now the familiar themes of European anti-Semitism—the blood libel, the protocols of Zion, the international Jewish conspiracy, and the rest—have become standard fare in much of the Arab world, in the schoolroom, the pulpit, the media, and even on the Internet. It is bitterly ironic that these themes have been adopted by previously immune Muslims precisely at a time when in Europe they have become an embarrassment even to anti-Semites. What encouraged this development was what one can only describe as the acquiescence of the United Nations and, apparently, of enlightened opinion in the Western world. Let me cite some examples. On November 29, , the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the famous resolution calling for the division of Palestine into a Jewish state, an Arab state, and an international zone of Jerusalem.

The United Nations passed this resolution without making any provision for its enforcement. Just over two weeks later, at a public meeting on December 17, the Arab League adopted a resolution totally rejecting this UN resolution, declaring that they would use all means at their disposal, including armed intervention, to nullify it—an open challenge to the United Nations that was and remains unanswered. No attempt was made to respond, no attempt to prevent the armed intervention that the Arab League promptly launched. At the end of the initial struggle in Palestine, part of the country was under the rule of the newly created Jewish state, part under the rule of neighboring Arab governments. A significant number of Arabs remained in the territories under Jewish rule. It was taken then as axiomatic, and has never been challenged since, that no Jews could remain in the areas of Palestine under Arab rule, so that as well as Arab refugees from the Jewish-controlled areas, there were Jewish refugees from the Arab-controlled areas of mandatary Palestine, not just settlers, but old, established groups, notably the ancient Jewish community in East Jerusalem, which was totally evicted and its monuments desecrated or destroyed.

The United Nations seemed to have no problem with this; nor did international public opinion. When Jews were driven out, no provision was made for them, no help offered, no protest made. This surely sent a very clear message to the Arab world, a less clear message to the Jews. Jewish refugees came not only from those parts of Palestine that were under Arab rule, but also from Arab countries, where the Jewish communities either fled or were driven out, in numbers roughly equal to those of the Arab refugees from Israel. Again, the response of the United Nations to the two groups of refugees was very different. For Arab refugees in Palestine, very elaborate arrangements were made and very extensive financing provided. This contrasts not only with the treatment of Jews from Arab countries, but with the treatment of all the other refugees at the time. The partition of Palestine in was a trivial affair compared with the partition of India in the previous year, which resulted in millions of refugees—Hindus who fled or were driven from Pakistan into India, and Muslims who fled or were driven from India into Pakistan.

This occurred entirely without any help from the United Nations, and perhaps for that reason the refugees were all resettled. One could go back a little further and talk about the millions of refugees in Central and Eastern Europe—Poles fleeing from the Eastern Polish areas annexed to the Soviet Union and Germans fleeing from the East German areas annexed to Poland. Millions of them, of both nationalities, were left entirely to their own people and their own resources. Some other measures adopted at the time may be worth noting. All the Arab governments involved announced two things. First, they would not recognize Israel. They were entitled to do that. Second, they would not admit Israelis of any religion to their territories, which meant that not only Israeli Jews but also Israeli Muslims and Christians were not allowed into East Jerusalem. Catholic and Protestant Christians were permitted to enter once a year on Christmas Day for a few hours, but otherwise there was no admittance to the holy places in Jerusalem for Jews or Christians.

Worse than that, Muslims in Israel were unable to go on the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. For Christians, pilgrimage is optional. For Muslims it is a basic obligation of the faith. A Muslim is required to go on pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina at least once in a lifetime. The Saudi government of the time ruled that Muslims who were Israeli citizens could not go. Some years later, they modified this rule. At the same time, virtually all the Arab governments announced that they would not give visas to Jews of any nationality. This was not furtive—it was public, proclaimed on the visa forms and in the tourist literature. They made it quite clear that people of the Jewish religion, no matter what their citizenship, would not be given visas or be permitted to enter any independent Arab country. Again, not a word of protest from anywhere.

One can imagine the outrage if Israel had announced that it would not give visas to Muslims, still more if the United States were to do so. As directed against Jews, this ban was seen as perfectly natural and normal. In some countries it continues to this day, although in practice most Arab countries have given it up. Neither the United Nations nor the public protested any of this in any way, so it is hardly surprising that Arab governments concluded that they had license for this sort of action and worse. Not a murmur of protest from anyone, anywhere. These examples may serve to illustrate the atmosphere within which the new Arab anti-Semitism grew and flourished. After the war, the Israelis came into possession of the former Arab-occupied Palestinian territories, including a number of schools run by unrwa, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency. These schools were funded by the United Nations. When the Israelis had a chance to look at the Syrian, Jordanian, or Egyptian textbooks that these UN-funded schools used, they found many examples of unequivocal anti-Semitism.

Although the Israelis could do nothing about anti-Semitism in textbooks in Arab countries, they felt that they could do something about anti-Semitism in textbooks used in schools funded and maintained by the United Nations. The matter was referred to the UN, which referred it to unesco, which appointed a commission of three professors of Arabic—one Turkish, one French, and one American. These professors examined the textbooks and wrote a lengthy report saying that some textbooks were acceptable, some were beyond repair and should be abandoned, and some should be corrected. The report was presented to unesco on April 4, It was not published. The rationale has thus served two purposes—one for Jews, the other for their enemies. During the medieval and early modern periods, Jews persecuted by Christians could convert.

Not only could they escape the persecution; they could join the persecutors if they so wished, and some indeed rose to high rank in the church and in the Inquisition. Racial anti-Semitism removed that option. The present-day ideological anti-Semitism has restored it, and now as in the Middle Ages, there seem to be some who are willing to avail themselves of this option. For non-Jews the rationale brought a different kind of relief. For more than half a century, any discussion of Jews and their problems has been overshadowed by the grim memories of the crimes of the Nazis and of the complicity, acquiescence, or indifference of so many others.

But inevitably, the memory of those days is fading, and now Israel and its problems afford an opportunity to relinquish the unfamiliar and uncomfortable posture of guilt and contrition and to resume the more familiar and more comfortable position of stern reproof from an attitude of moral superiority. It is not surprising that this opportunity is widely welcomed and utilized. The new anti-Semitism has little or no bearing on the rights and wrongs of the Palestine conflict, but it must surely have some effect on perceptions of the problem, and therefore on the behavior and perhaps even on the policies of both participants and outsiders.

Nor is the offense all on one side. One might argue that when Arabs are judged by a lower standard than Jews, as for example the minimal attention given to the atrocious crimes committed at Darfur, this is more offensive to Arabs than to Jews. Contempt is indeed more demeaning than hatred. But it is less dangerous. The sultan was only slightly out of date concerning the enactment of laws to abolish or limit the slave trade, and he was sadly right in his general historic perspective. The institution of slavery had indeed been practiced from time immemorial. It existed in all the ancient civilizations of Asia, Africa, Europe, and pre-Columbian America. It had been accepted and even endorsed by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as other religions of the world. In the ancient Middle East, as elsewhere, slavery is attested from the very earliest written records, among the Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Egyptians, and other ancient peoples. The earliest slaves, it would seem, were captives taken in warfare.

Their numbers were augmented from other sources of supply. In pre-classical antiquity, most slaves appear to have been the property of kings, priests, and temples, and only a relatively small proportion were in private possession. They were employed to till the fields and tend the flocks of their royal and priestly masters but otherwise seem to have played little role in economic production, which was mostly left to small farmers, tenants, and sharccroppers and to artisans and journeymen. The slave population was also recruited by the sale, abandonment, or kidnapping of small children. Free persons could sell themselves or, more frequently, their offspring into slavery. They could be enslaved for insolvency, as could be the persons offered by them as pledges. In some systems, notably that of Rome, free persons could also be enslaved for a variety of offenses against the law.

Both the Old and New Testaments recognize and accept the institution of slavery. Both from time to time insist on the basic humanity of the slave, and the consequent need to treat him humanely. The Jews are frequently reminded, in both Bible and Talmud, that they too were slaves in Egypt and should therefore treat their slaves decently. A verse in the book of Job has even been interpreted as an argument against slavery as such: 'Did not He that made me in the womb make him [the slave]? And did not One fashion us both? This probably means no more, however, than that the slave is a fellow human being and not a mere chattel. The same is true of the much-quoted passage in the New Testament, that 'there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female; for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.

From many allusions, it is clear that slavery is accepted in the New Testament as a fact of life. Some passages in the Pauline Epistles even endorse it. Thus in the Epistle to Philemon, a runaway slave is returned to his master; in Ephesians 6, the duty owed by a slave to his master is compared with the duty owed by a child to his parent, and the slave is enjoined 'to be obedient to them that are your masters, according to the flesh, in fear and trembling, in singleness of your heart, as unto Christ. All humans, of the true faith, were equal in the eyes of God and in the afterlife but not necessarily in the laws of man and in this world. Those not of the true faith — whichever it was — were in another, and in most respects an inferior, category. In this respect, the Greek perception of the barbarian and the Judeo-Christian-lslamic perception of the unbeliever coincide.

There appear indeed to have been some who opposed slavery, usually as it was practiced but sometimes even as such. There is no evidence that either jurists or philosophers sought its abolition, and even their theoretical opposition has been questioned. Much of it was concerned with moral and spiritual themes — the true freedom of the good man, even when enslaved, and the enslavement of the evil freeman to his passions. These ideas, which recur in Jewish and Christian writings, were of little help to those who suffered the reality of slavery. Philo, the Alexandrian Jewish philosopher, claims that a Jewish sect actually renounced slavery in practice. In a somewhat idealized account of the Essenes, he observes that they practiced a form of primitive communism, sharing homes and property and pooling their earnings. This view, if it was indeed held and put into practice, was unique in the ancient Middle East.

Jews, Christians, and pagans alike owned slaves and exercised the rights and powers accorded to them by their various religious laws. In all communities, there were men of compassion who urged slaveowners to treat their slaves humanely, and there was even some attempt to secure this by law. But the institution of slavery as such was not seriously questioned, and was indeed often defended in terms of either Natural Law or Divine Dispensation. For such, slavery is not only right; it is also to their advantage.

The ancient Israelites did not claim that slavery was beneficial to the slaves, but, like the ancient Greeks, they felt the need to explain and justify the enslavement of their neighbors. In this, as in other matters, they sought a religious rather than a philosophical sanction and found it in the biblical story of the curse of Ham. Significantly, this curse was restricted to one line only of the descendants of Ham, namely, the children of Canaan, whom the Israelites had subjugated when they conquered the Promised Land, and did not affect the others. The Qur'an, like the Old and the New Testaments, assumes the existence of slavery. It regulates the practice of the institution and thus implicitly accepts it. The Prophet Muhammad and those of his Companions who could afford it themselves owned slaves; some of them acquired more by conquest. But Qur'anic legislation, subsequently confirmed and elaborated in the Holy Law, brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching effects.

One of these was the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances. The Qur'an was promulgated in Mecca and Medina in the seventh century, and the background against which Qur'anic legislation must be seen is ancient Arabia. The Arabs practiced a form of slavery, similar to that which existed in other parts of the ancient world. The Qur'an accepts the institution, though it may be noted that the word 'abd slave is rarely used, being more commonly replaced by some periphrasis such as ma malakat aymanukum, 'that which your right hands own. It also recognizes concubinage IV:3; XXIII:6; XXXIII; LXX It urges, without actually commanding, kindness to the slave IV; IX; XXIV and recommends, without requiring, his liberation by purchase or manumission.

The freeing of slaves is recommended both for the expiation of sins IV; V; LVIII:3 and as an act of simple benevolence II; XXIV; XC It exhorts masters to allow slaves to earn or purchase their own freedom. An important change from pagan, though not from Jewish or Christian, practices is that in the strictly religious sense, the believing slave is now the brother of the freeman in Islam and before God, and the superior of the free pagan or idolator II This point is emphasized and elaborated in innumerable hadlths traditions , in which the Prophet is quoted as urging considerate and sometimes even equal treatment for slaves, denouncing cruelty, harshness, or even discourtesy, recommending the liberation of slaves, and reminding the Muslims that his apostolate was to free and slave alike. Though slavery was maintained, the Islamic dispensation enormously improved the position of the Arabian slave, who was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human being with a certain religious and hence a social status and with certain quasi-legal rights.

The early caliphs who ruled the Islamic community after the death of the Prophet also introduced some further reforms of a humanitarian tendency. The enslavement of free Muslims was soon discouraged and eventually prohibited. It was made unlawful for a freeman to sell himself or his children into slavery, and it was no longer permitted for freemen to be enslaved for either debt or crime, as was usual in the Roman world and, despite attempts at reform, in parts of Christian Europe until at least the sixteenth century. It became a fundamental principle of Islamic jurisprudence that the natural condition, and therefore the presumed status, of mankind was freedom, just as the basic rule concerning actions is permittedness: what is not expressly forbidden is permitted; whoever is not known to be a slave is free.

This rule was not always strictly observed. Rebels and heretics were sometimes denounced as infidels or, worse, apostates, and reduced to slavery, as were the victims of some Muslim rulers in Africa, who proclaimed jihad against their neighbors, without looking closely at their religious beliefs, so as to provide legal cover for their enslavement. But by and large, and certainly in the central lands of Islam, under regimes of high civilization, the rule was honored, and free subjects of the state, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, were protected from unlawful enslavement. Since all human beings were naturally free, slavery could only arise from two circumstances: 1 being born to slave parents or 2 being captured in war.

The latter was soon restricted to infidels captured in a jihad. These reforms seriously limited the supply of new slaves. Abandoned and unclaimed children could no longer be adopted as slaves, as was a common practice in antiquity, and free persons could no longer be enslaved. Under Islamic law, the slave population could only be recruited, in addition to birth and capture, by importation, the last either by purchase or in the form of tribute from beyond the Islamic frontiers. In the early days of rapid conquest and expansion, the holy war brought a plentiful supply of new slaves, but as the frontiers were gradually stabilized, this supply dwindled to a mere trickle.

Most wars were now conducted against organized armies, like those of the Byzantines or other Christian states, and with them prisoners of war were commonly ransomed or exchanged. Within the Islamic frontiers, Islam spread rapidly among the populations of the newly acquired territories, and even those who remained faithful to their old religions and lived as protected persons dhimmis under Muslim rule could not, if free, be legally enslaved unless they had violated the terms of the dhimma, the contract governing their status, as for example by rebelling against Muslim rule or helping the enemies of the Muslim state or, according to some authorities, by withholding pa'yment of the Kharaj or the Jizya, the taxes due from dhimmls to the Muslim state.

In the Islamic empire, the humanitarian tendency of the Qur'an and the early caliphs was to some extent counteracted by other influences. Notable among these was the practice of the various conquered peoples and countries which the Muslims encountered after their expansion, especially in provinces previously under Roman law. This law, even in its Christianized form, was still very harsh in its treatment of slaves. Perhaps equally important was the huge increase in the slave population resulting first from the conquests themselves, and then from the organization of a great network of importation. These led to a fall in the cash value and hence the human value of slaves, and to a general adoption of a harsher tone and severer rules. But even after this stiffening of attitudes and laws, Islamic practice still represented a vast improvement on that inherited from antiquity, from Rome, and from Byzantium.

Slaves were excluded from religious functions or from any office involving jurisdiction over others. Their testimony was not admitted at judicial proceedings. In penal law, the penalty for an offense against a person, a fine or bloodwit, was, for a slave, half of that for a freeman. While maltreatment was deplored, there was no fixed shari'a penalty. In what might be called civil matters, the slave was a chattel with no legal powers or rights whatsoever. He could not enter into a contract, hold property, or inherit. If he incurred a fine, his owner was responsible. He was, however, distinctly better off, in the matter of rights, than a Greek or Roman slave, since Islamic jurists, and not only philosophers and moralists, took account of humanitarian considerations. They laid down, for example, that a master must give his slave medical attention when required, must give him adequate upkeep, and must support him in his old age. If a master defaulted on these and other obligations to his slave, the qadi could compel him to fulfill them or else either to sell or to emancipate the slave.

The master was forbidden to overwork his slave, and if he did so to the point of cruelty, he was liable to a penalty which was, however, discretionary and not prescribed by law. A slave could enter into a contract to earn his freedom, in which case his master had no obliation to pay for his upkeep. While in theory the slave could not own property, he could be granted certain rights of ownership for which he paid a fixed sum to his master. A slave could marry, but only by consent of the master. Theoretically, a male slave could marry a free woman, but this was discouraged and in practice prohibited. A master could not marry his own slave woman unless he first freed her. Islamic law provides a number of ways in which a slave could be set free. One was manumission, accomplished by a formal declaration on the part of the master and recorded in a certificate which was given to the liberated slave.

The manumission of a slave included the offspring of that slave, and the jurists specify that if there is any uncertainty about an act of manumission, the slave has the benefit of the doubt. Another method is a written agreement by which the master grants liberty in return for a fixed sum. Once such an agreement has been concluded, the master no longer has the right to dispose of his slave, whether by sale or gift. The slave is still subject to certain legal disabilities, but in most respects is virtually free. Such an agreement, once entered into, may be terminated by the slave but not by the master. Children born to the slave after the entry into force of the contract are born free. The master may bind himself to liberate a slave at some specified future time. He may also bind his heirs to liberate a slave after his death.

The law schools differ somewhat on the rules regarding this kind of liberation. In addition to all these, which depend on the will of the master, there are various legal causes which may lead to liberation, independently of the will of the master. The commonest is a legal judgment by a qadi ordering a master to emancipate a slave whom he has maltreated. A special case is that of the umm walad, a slave woman who bears a son to her master, and thereby acquires certain irrevocable legal rights. Non-Muslim subjects of the Muslim state, that is, dhimmis, were in practice allowed to own slaves; and Christian and Jewish families who could afford it owned and employed slaves in the same way as their Muslim counterparts.

They were not permitted to own Muslim slaves; and if a slave owned by a dhimmi embraced Islam, his owner was legally obliged to free or sell him. Jews and Christians were of course not permitted to have Muslim concubines, and were indeed usually debarred by their own religious authorities — not always effectively — from sexual access to their slaves. Jewish slaves, acquired through privateering in the Mediterranean and slave raiding in Eastern Europe, were often redeemed and set free by their local co-religionists. The vastly more numerous Christian slaves — apart from West Europeans, whose ransoms could be arranged from home — were for the most part doomed to remain.

Sometimes, Christian and Jewish slaveowners tried to convert their domestic slaves to their own religions. Jews were indeed required by rabbinic law to try to persuade their slaves to accept conversion with circumcision and ritual immersion. A form of semi-conversion, whereby the slave accepted some basic commandments and observances, but not the full rigor of the Mosaic law, was widely practiced. According to Jewish law, a converted or even semi-converted slave could not be sold to a Gentile. If the owner in fact so sold him or her, the slave was to be set free. Conversely, a slave who refused even semi-conversion was, after a stipulated interval of time, to be sold to a Gentile. Muslim authorities, both jurists and rulers, took different views of this. Conversion from Islam was of course a capital offense, and some jurists held that only conversion to Islam was lawful.

Others, however, saw no objection to conversion between non-Muslim religions, provided that the converted slaves had reached the age of reason and changed their religion of their own free will. Though a free Muslim could not be enslaved, conversion to Islam by a non-Muslim slave did not require his liberation. His slave status was not affected by his Islam, nor was that of a Muslim child born to slave parents. There were occasional slave rebellions and, from the rules and regulations about runaway slaves, it would appear that such escapes were not infrequent. Slaves from neighboring countries might have some chance of returning to their homes, and examples are known of European slaves in the Ottoman lands escaping to Europe, where some indeed wrote memoirs or accounts of their captivity.

The chances of a slave from the steppe-lands or from Africa finding his way back were remote. As we have seen, the slave population was recruited in four main ways: by capture, tribute, offspring, and purchase. Capture: In the early centuries of Islam, during the period of the conquest and expansion, this was the most important source. With the stabilization of the frontier, the numbers recruited in this way diminished, and eventually provided only a very small proportion of slave requirements. Frontier warfare and naval raiding yielded some captives, but these were relatively few and were usually exchanged. In later centuries, warfare in Africa or India supplied some slaves by capture.

With the spread of Islam, and the acceptance of dhimml status by increasing numbers of non-Muslims, the possibilities for recruitment by capture were severely restricted. Tribute: Slaves sometimes formed part of the tribute required from vassal states beyond the Islamic frontiers. This may indeed have been the reason why Nuhia was for a long time not conquered. The stipulated delivery of some hundreds of male and female slaves, later supplemented by elephants, giraffes, and other wild beasts, continued at least until the twelfth century, when it was disrupted by a series of bitter wars between the Muslim rulers of Egypt and the Christian kings of Nubia. Similar agreements, providing for the delivery of a tribute of slaves, were imposed by the early Arab conquerors on neighboring princes in Iran and Central Asia, but were of briefer duration. Offspring: The recruitment of the slave population by natural increase seems to have been small and, right through to modern times, insufficient to maintain numbers.

This is in striking contrast with conditions in the New World, where the slave population increased very rapidly. Several factors contributed to this difference, perhaps the most important being that the slave population in the Islamic Middle East was constantly drained by the liberation of slaves — sometimes as an act of piety, most commonly through the recognition and liberation, by a freeman, of his own offspring by a slave mother. There were also other reasons for the low natural increase of the slave population in the Islamic world. They include. Purchase: This came to be by far the most important means for the legal acquisition of new slaves. Slaves were purchased on the frontiers of the Islamic world and then imported to the major centers, where there were slave markets from which they were widely distributed. In one of the sad paradoxes of human history, it was the humanitarian reforms brought by Islam that resulted in a vast development of the slave trade inside, and still more outside, the Islamic empire.

In the Roman world, the slave population was occasionally recruited from outside, when a new territory was conquered or a barbarian invasion repelled, but mostly, slaves came from internal sources. This was not possible in the Islamic empire, where, although slavery was maintained, enslavement was banned. The result was an increasingly massive importation of slaves from the outside. Like enslavement, mutilation was forbidden by Islamic law. In medieval and Ottoman times the two main sources of eunuchs were Slavs and Ethiopians Habash, a term which commonly included all the peoples of the Horn of Africa. Eunuchs were also recruited among Greeks Rum , West Africans Takrurl, pl. Takarina , Indians, and occasionally West Europeans. The slave population of the Islamic world was recruited from many lands. In the earliest days, slaves came principally from the newly conquered countries — from the Fertile Crescent and Egypt, from Iran and North Africa, from Central Asia, India, and Spain.

Most of these slaves had a cultural level at least as high as that of their Arab masters, and by conversion and manumission they were rapidly absorbed into the general population. As the supply of slaves by conquest and capture diminished, the needs of the slave market were met, more and more, by importation from beyond the frontier. Small numbers of slaves were brought from India, China, Southeast Asia, and the Byzantine Empire, most of them specialists and technicians of one kind or another. The vast majority of unskilled slaves, however, came from the lands immediately north and south of the Islamic world — whites from Europe and the Eurasian steppes, blacks from Africa south of the Sahara. Among white Europeans and black Africans alike, there was no lack of enterprising merchants and middlemen, eager to share in this profitable trade, who were willing to capture or kidnap their neighbors and deliver them, as slaves, to a ready and expanding market.

In Europe there was also an important trade in slaves, Muslim, Jewish, pagan, and even Orthodox Christian, recruited by capture and bought for mainly domestic use. Central and East European slaves, generally known as Saqaliba i. They were mostly but not exclusively Slavs. Some were captured by Muslim naval raids on European coasts, particularly the Dalmatian. Most were supplied by European, especially Venetian, slave merchants, who delivered cargoes of them to the Muslim markets in Spain and North Africa. The Saqaliba were prominent in Muslim Spain and to a lesser extent in North Africa but played a minor role in the East. With the consolidation of powerful states in Christian Europe, the supply of West European slaves dried up and was maintained only by privateering and coastal raiding from North Africa.

Black slaves were brought into the Islamic world by a number of routes — from West Africa across the Sahara to Morocco and Tunisia, from Chad across the desert to Libya, from East Africa down the Nile to Egypt, and across the Red Sea and Indian Ocean to Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Turkish slaves from the steppe-lands were marketed in Samarkand and other Muslim Central Asian cities and from there exported to Iran, the Fertile Crescent, and beyond. Caucasians, of increasing importance in the later centuries, were brought from the land bridge between the Black Sea and the Caspian and were marketed mainly in Aleppo and Mosul. By Ottoman times, the first for which we have extensive documentation, the pattern of importation had changed. At first, the expanding Ottoman Empire, like the expanding Arab Empire of earlier times, recruited its slaves by conquest and capture, and great numbers of Balkan Christians were forcibly brought into Ottoman service.

The distinctively Ottoman institution of the devsirme, the levy of boys from the Christian village population, made it possible, contrary to previous Islamic law and practice, to recruit slaves from the subject peoples of the conquered provinces. Goat antirabbit IgG Invitrogen, was used as secondary antibody for alpha-tubulin and clathrin samples. Goat antimouse IgG Sigma-Aldrich, SAB—1 was used as secondary antibody for beta-tubulin staining. Antibody labeling via N -hydroxysuccinimidyl esters was performed at RT for 4h in labeling buffer mM sodium tetraborat, Fluka , pH 9. Briefly, μg antibody was reconstituted in labeling buffer using 0. Goat-antirabbit IgG Invitrogen, was modified with N -hydroxysuccinimidyl ester—PEG 4 — trans -cyclooctene JenaBioscience, CLK-A , using a 5 fold surplus of NHS-PEG 4 -TCO. After purification using spin-desalting columns 40K MWCO in PBS Sigma-Aldrich, D ML , modified goat-antirabbit IgG Invitrogen, was incubated with a 10 x excess of Tetrazine-ATTO ATTO-TEC, AD — at RT and purified again after 15 min.

Goat antimouse IgG was incubated using a 5× excess of N -hydroxysuccinimidyl esters—Alexa LifeTech, A and purified after 4 h using spin-desalting columns 40K MWCO in PBS Sigma-Aldrich, D ML to remove excess dyes. Finally, antibody concentration and degree of labeling DOL was determined by UV—vis absorption spectrometry JASCO V Human mesenchymal stem cells PT used for proof-of-principle dSTORM imaging were purchased from Lonza Group. After that, they were permeabilized with 0. Then cells were washed in PBS, containing 0. COS-7 cells, used for DNA-PAINT measurements, were immunostained and transfected as described previously.

Prior to immunostaining and imaging, ca. COS-7 cells, used for lifetime-based multiplexed dSTORM imaging, were seeded at a concentration of 2. For microtubule and clathrin immunostaining, cells were washed with prewarmed 37 °C PBS Sigma-Aldrich, D ML and permeabilized for 2 min with 0. Cells were washed twice with PBS Sigma-Aldrich, D ML. After fixation, samples were treated with 0. ab in blocking buffer for 1 h. After incubation, cells were rinsed with PBS Sigma-Aldrich, D ML and washed twice with 0. After secondary antibody incubation, cells were rinsed with PBS Sigma-Aldrich, D ML and washed twice with 0. The solution of μL of water, μL of PBS, μL of microsphere solution, and 0. The DNA sequences are shown in the Table S1. The supernatant was then removed and replaced with μL of PBS, and the pellet was dissolved by vortexing. A 50 μL portion of the final solution was put on a glass coverslip and incubated for 20 min, protected from light and evaporation.

Finally, μL of dSTORM imaging buffer was added on top. dSTORM imaging of tubulin in hMS cells; DNA-PAINT imaging of cellular chromatin in COS-7 cells; confocal sectioning demonstration; histograms of detected photons for cell measurements; DNA sequences list with modifications; histograms corresponding to the localizations in the bead measurement; scanning confocal measurement of TetraSpeck microspheres; correction of line mismatch between forward and reverse scan; influence of the scan speed and frame binning; reconstructions for different measurement durations, development of count rate and number of localizations over time PDF. Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions.

Such files may be downloaded by article for research use if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses. Jörg Enderlein - III. Jan Christoph Thiele - III. Dominic A. Helmerich - Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg , Germany. Nazar Oleksiievets - III. Institute of Physics-Biophysics, Georg August University, Göttingen , Germany. Eugenia Butkevich - III. designed experiments. and O. generated and processed data.

labeled antibodies and prepared cells for dSTORM measurements. prepared hMS cell samples. and R. performed PAINT measurements. wrote the analysis software. E wrote, edited, and approved the final draft of manuscript. A preprint of this work has been posted: Thiele, J. Confocal Laser-Scanning Fluorescence-Lifetime Single-Molecule Localization Microscopy. bioRxiv , The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The authors thank Dr. Shama Sograte-Idrissi for COS-7 cell preparation for DNA-PAINT experiments.

We are grateful to Dr. Anna Chizhik for fruitful discussions. is grateful to the DFG for financial support via project A05 of the SFB and to the International Max Planck Research School for Physics of Biological and Complex Systems IMPRS PBCS for financial support. is grateful to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG for financial support via project A10 of the SFB and M. are grateful to the German Research Foundation DFG, TRR ReceptorLight, project A04 and the European Regional Development Fund EFRE project "Center for Personalized Molecular Immunotherapy". Betzig, E. Imaging Intracellular Fluorescent Proteins at Nanometer Resolution. Science , , — , DOI: Betzig, Eric; Patterson, George H.

Wolf; Olenych, Scott; Bonifacino, Juan S. Science Washington, DC, United States , , CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: American Association for the Advancement of Science. The authors introduce a method for optically imaging intracellular proteins at nanometer spatial resoln. Numerous sparse subsets of photoactivatable fluorescent protein mols. The aggregate position information from all subsets was then assembled into a superresoln. The authors used this method - termed photoactivated localization microscopy - to image specific target proteins in thin sections of lysosomes and mitochondria; in fixed whole cells, the authors imaged vinculin at focal adhesions, actin within a lamellipodium, and the distribution of the retroviral protein Gag at the plasma membrane. Huang, B.

Three-Dimensional Super-Resolution Imaging by Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy. Recent advances in far-field fluorescence microscopy have led to substantial improvements in image resoln. of 20 to 30 nm in the two lateral dimensions. Three-dimensional 3D nanoscale-resoln. imaging, however, remains a challenge. We demonstrated 3D stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy STORM by using optical astigmatism to det. both axial and lateral positions of individual fluorophores with nanometer accuracy. Iterative, stochastic activation of photoswitchable probes enables high-precision 3D localization of each probe, and thus the construction of a 3D image, without scanning the sample. Using this approach, we achieved an image resoln.

of 20 to 30 nm in the lateral dimensions and 50 to 60 nm in the axial dimension. This development allowed us to resolve the 3D morphol. of nanoscopic cellular structures. Heilemann, M. Subdiffraction-Resolution Fluorescence Imaging with Conventional Fluorescent Probes. Subdiffraction-resolution fluorescence imaging with conventional fluorescent probes. Heilemann, Mike; van de Linde, Sebastian; Schuttpelz, Mark; Kasper, Robert; Seefeldt, Britta; Mukherjee, Anindita; Tinnefeld, Philip; Sauer, Markus. Angewandte Chemie, International Edition , 47 33 , CODEN: ACIEF5 ; ISSN: Sharonov, A. Wide-Field Subdiffraction Imaging by Accumulated Binding of Diffusing Probes. Wide-field subdiffraction imaging by accumulated binding of diffusing probes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 50 , CODEN: PNASA6 ; ISSN: National Academy of Sciences. A method is introduced for subdiffraction imaging that accumulates points by collisional flux.

It is based on targeting the surface of objects by fluorescent probes diffusing in the soln. Because the flux of probes at the object is essentially const. over long time periods, the examn. of an almost unlimited no. of individual probe mols. becomes possible. Each probe that hits the object and that becomes immobilized is located with high precision by replacing its point-spread function by a point at its centroid. Images of lipid bilayers, contours of these bilayers, and large unilamellar vesicles are shown. A spatial resoln. The ability of the method to effect rapid nanoscale imaging and spatial resoln.

below Rayleigh criterion and without the necessity for labeling with fluorescent probes is proven. Schnitzbauer, J. Super-Resolution Microscopy with DNA-PAINT. Schnitzbauer, Joerg; Strauss, Maximilian T. Nature Protocols , 12 6 , CODEN: NPARDW ; ISSN: Nature Publishing Group. techniques have begun to transform biol. and biomedical research by allowing researchers to observe structures well below the classic diffraction limit of light. DNA points accumulation for imaging in nanoscale topog. DNA-PAINT offers an easy-to-implement approach to localization-based super-resoln. microscopy, owing to the use of DNA probes. In DNA-PAINT, transient binding of short dye-labeled 'imager' oligonucleotides to their complementary target 'docking' strands creates the necessary 'blinking' to enable stochastic super-resoln. Using the programmability and specificity of DNA mols. as imaging and labeling probes allows researchers to decouple blinking from dye photophysics, alleviating limitations of current super-resoln.

techniques, making them compatible with virtually any single-mol. Recent developments in DNA-PAINT have enabled spectrally unlimited multiplexing, precise mol. counting and ultra-high, mol. DNA-PAINT can be applied to a multitude of in vitro and cellular applications by linking docking strands to antibodies. Here, we present a protocol for the key aspects of the DNA-PAINT framework for both novice and expert users. This protocol describes the creation of DNA origami test samples, in situ sample prepn. image reconstruction and post-processing such as drift correction, mol. counting qPAINT and particle averaging. Moreover, we provide an integrated software package, named Picasso, for the computational steps involved. The protocol is designed to be modular, so that individual components can be chosen and implemented per requirements of a specific application. The procedure can be completed in d. Schueder, F. Multiplexed 3D Super-Resolution Imaging of Whole Cells Using Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy and DNA-PAINT.

Multiplexed 3D super-resolution imaging of whole cells using spinning disk confocal microscopy and DNA-PAINT. Schueder Florian; Woehrstein Johannes B; Strauss Maximilian T; Grabmayr Heinrich; Jungmann Ralf; Schueder Florian; Woehrstein Johannes B; Strauss Maximilian T; Grabmayr Heinrich; Jungmann Ralf; Lara-Gutierrez Juanita; Beliveau Brian J; Saka Sinem K; Sasaki Hiroshi M; Yin Peng; Lara-Gutierrez Juanita; Beliveau Brian J; Saka Sinem K; Sasaki Hiroshi M; Yin Peng. Nature communications , 8 1 , ISSN:. Single-molecule localization microscopy SMLM can visualize biological targets on the nanoscale, but complex hardware is required to perform SMLM in thick samples.

Here, we combine 3D DNA points accumulation for imaging in nanoscale topography DNA-PAINT with spinning disk confocal SDC hardware to overcome this limitation. We assay our achievable resolution with two- and three-dimensional DNA origami structures and demonstrate the general applicability by imaging a large variety of cellular targets including proteins, DNA and RNA deep in cells. We achieve multiplexed 3D super-resolution imaging at sample depths up to ~10 μm with up to 20 nm planar and 80 nm axial resolution, now enabling DNA-based super-resolution microscopy in whole cells using standard instrumentation. Uno, S. A Spontaneously Blinking Fluorophore Based on Intramolecular Spirocyclization for Live-Cell Super-Resolution Imaging.

A spontaneously blinking fluorophore based on intramolecular spirocyclization for live-cell super-resolution imaging. Uno, Shin-nosuke; Kamiya, Mako; Yoshihara, Toshitada; Sugawara, Ko; Okabe, Kohki; Tarhan, Mehmet C. Nature Chemistry , 6 8 , CODEN: NCAHBB ; ISSN: localization microscopy is used to construct super-resoln. images, but generally requires prior intense laser irradn. and in some cases additives, such as thiols, to induce on-off switching of fluorophores. These requirements limit the potential applications of this methodol. Here, we report a first-in-class spontaneously blinking fluorophore based on an intramol. spirocyclization reaction. Optimization of the intramol. nucleophile and rhodamine-based fluorophore electrophile provide a suitable lifetime for the fluorescent open form, and equil. between the open form and the non-fluorescent closed form.

We show that this spontaneously blinking fluorophore is suitable for single-mol. localization microscopy imaging deep inside cells and for tracking the motion of structures in living cells. We further demonstrate the advantages of this fluorophore over existing methodologies by applying it to nuclear pore structures located far above the coverslip with a spinning-disk confocal microscope and for repetitive time-lapse super-resoln. imaging of microtubules in live cells for up to 1 h. Lee, J. Video-Rate Confocal Microscopy for Single-Molecule Imaging in Live Cells and Superresolution Fluorescence Imaging.

Biophysical Journal , 8 , CODEN: BIOJAU ; ISSN: Cell Press. There is no confocal microscope optimized for single-mol. imaging in live cells and superresoln. fluorescence imaging. By combining the swiftness of the line-scanning method and the high sensitivity of wide-field detection, the authors have developed a, to the authors' knowledge, novel confocal fluorescence microscope with a good optical-sectioning capability 1. Full compatibility of the microscope with conventional cell-imaging techniques allowed the authors to do single-mol. imaging with a great ease at arbitrary depths of live cells. With the new microscope, the authors monitored diffusion motion of fluorescently labeled cAMP receptors of Dictyostelium discoideum at both the basal and apical surfaces and obtained superresoln. fluorescence images of microtubules of COS-7 cells at depths in the range μm from the surface of a coverglass. Vandenberg, W. Diffraction-Unlimited Imaging: From Pretty Pictures to Hard Numbers.

Cell Tissue Res. Diffraction-unlimited imaging: from pretty pictures to hard numbers. Cell and tissue research , 1 , ISSN:. Diffraction-unlimited fluorescence imaging allows the visualization of intact, strongly heterogeneous systems at unprecedented levels of detail. Beyond the acquisition of detailed pictures, increasing efforts are now being focused on deriving quantitative insights from these techniques. In this work, we review the recent developments on sub-diffraction quantization that have arisen for the various techniques currently in use. We pay particular attention to the information that can be obtained but also the practical problems that can be faced, and provide suggestions for solutions or workarounds.

We also show that these quantitative metrics not only provide a way to turn raw data into hard statistics but also help to understand the features and pitfalls associated with sub-diffraction imaging. Ultimately, these developments will lead to a highly standardized and easily applicable toolbox of techniques, which will find widespread application in the scientific community. Mortensen, K. Optimized Localization Analysis for Single-Molecule Tracking and Super-Resolution Microscopy. Methods , 7 , — , DOI: Optimized localization analysis for single-molecule tracking and super-resolution microscopy.

Nature Methods , 7 5 , CODEN: NMAEA3 ; ISSN: The authors optimally localized isolated fluorescent beads and mols. imaged as diffraction-limited spots, detd. the orientation of mols. and present reliable formulas for the precision of various localization methods. Both theory and exptl. data showed that unweighted least-squares fitting of a Gaussian squanders one-third of the available information, a popular formula for its precision exaggerates beyond Fisher's information limit, and weighted least-squares may do worse, whereas max. Lleres, D. Quantitative Flim-Fret Microscopy to Monitor Nanoscale Chromatin Compaction in Vivo Reveals Structural Roles of Condensin Complexes. Cell Rep. Quantitative FLIM-FRET Microscopy to Monitor Nanoscale Chromatin Compaction In Vivo Reveals Structural Roles of Condensin Complexes. Lleres, David; Bailly, Aymeric P. Cell Reports , 18 7 , CODEN: CREED8 ; ISSN: How metazoan genomes are structured at the nanoscale in living cells and tissues remains unknown.

Here, we adapted a quant. FRET Forster resonance energy transfer -based fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy FLIM approach to assay nanoscale chromatin compaction in living organisms. Caenorhabditis elegans was chosen as a model system. By measuring FRET between histone-tagged fluorescent proteins, we visualized distinct chromosomal regions and quantified the different levels of nanoscale compaction in meiotic cells. Using RNAi and repetitive extrachromosomal array approaches, we defined the heterochromatin state and showed that its architecture presents a nanoscale-compacted organization controlled by Heterochromatin Protein-1 HP1 and SETDB1 H3-lysine-9 methyltransferase homologs in vivo. Next, we functionally explored condensin complexes. We found that condensin I and condensin II are essential for heterochromatin compaction and that condensin I addnl. controls lowly compacted regions. Our data show that, in living animals, nanoscale chromatin compaction is controlled not only by histone modifiers and readers but also by condensin complexes.

Datta, R. Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy: Fundamentals and Advances in Instrumentation, Analysis, and Applications. Oleksiievets, N. Wide-Field Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging of Single Molecules. A , , — , DOI: Oleksiievets, Nazar; Thiele, Jan Christoph; Weber, Andre; Gregor, Ingo; Nevskyi, Oleksii; Isbaner, Sebastian; Tsukanov, Roman; Enderlein, Joerg. Journal of Physical Chemistry A , 17 , CODEN: JPCAFH ; ISSN: American Chemical Society. Fluorescence lifetime imaging FLIM has become an important microscopy technique in bioimaging.

The two most important of its applications are lifetime-multiplexing for imaging many different structures in parallel, and lifetime-based measurements of Forster resonance energy transfer. There are two principal FLIM techniques, one based on confocal-laser scanning microscopy CLSM and time-correlated single-photon counting TCSPC and the other based on wide-field microscopy and phase fluorometry. Although the first approach CLSM-TCSPC assures high sensitivity and allows one to detect single mols. The second allows, in principal, high frame rates by orders of magnitude faster than CLSM , but it suffers from low sensitivity, which precludes its application for single-mol. Here, the authors demonstrate that a novel wide-field TCSPC camera LINCam25, Photonscore GmbH can be successfully used for single-mol. This is due to the virtually absent background and readout noise of the camera, assuring high signal-to-noise ratio even at low detection efficiency. The authors performed single-mol.

FLIM of different red fluorophores, and the authors use the lifetime information for successfully distinguishing between different mol. Finally, the authors demonstrate single-mol. metal-induced energy transfer MIET imaging which is a first step for three-dimensional single-mol. localization microscopy SMLM with nanometer resoln. Bowman, A. Electro-Optic Imaging Enables Efficient Wide-Field Fluorescence Lifetime Microscopy. Electro-optic imaging enables efficient wide-field fluorescence lifetime microscopy. Nature communications , 10 1 , ISSN:. Nanosecond temporal resolution enables new methods for wide-field imaging like time-of-flight, gated detection, and fluorescence lifetime.

The optical efficiency of existing approaches, however, presents challenges for low-light applications common to fluorescence microscopy and single-molecule imaging. We demonstrate the use of Pockels cells for wide-field image gating with nanosecond temporal resolution and high photon collection efficiency. Two temporal frames are obtained by combining a Pockels cell with a pair of polarizing beam-splitters. We show multi-label fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy FLIM , single-molecule lifetime spectroscopy, and fast single-frame FLIM at the camera frame rate with 10 3 5 times higher throughput than single photon counting. Finally, we demonstrate a space-to-time image multiplexer using a re-imaging optical cavity with a tilted mirror to extend the Pockels cell technique to multiple temporal frames.

These methods enable nanosecond imaging with standard optical systems and sensors, opening a new temporal dimension for wide-field low-light microscopy. Zhao, M. Parallel Excitation-Emission Multiplexed Fluorescence Lifetime Confocal Microscopy for Live Cell Imaging. Express , 22 , — , DOI: Parallel excitation-emission multiplexed fluorescence lifetime confocal microscopy for live cell imaging. Optics express , 22 9 , ISSN:. We present a novel excitation-emission multiplexed fluorescence lifetime microscopy FLIM method that surpasses current FLIM techniques in multiplexing capability. The system is built with low-cost CW laser sources and standard PMTs with versatile spectral configuration, which can be implemented as an add-on to commercial confocal microscopes. The Fourier lifetime confocal method allows fast multiplexed FLIM imaging, which makes it possible to monitor multiple biological processes in live cells. The low cost and compatibility with commercial systems could also make multiplexed FLIM more accessible to biological research community.

Super-Resolution Imaging with Small Organic Fluorophores. The authors performed fluorescence quenching expts. with various Alexa Fluor and ATTO dyes and different electron donors, with the intention of finding reducing agents that selectively quench the energetically slightly stabilized triplet state but leave the singlet state unaffected. The authors found that reducing agents with thiol groups, such as MEA, DTT, and GSH, selectively quench the triplet state of rhodamine and oxazine derivs. depending on the pH value of the aq. buffer used. Since most thiols RSH have a pKa SH and the reducing species is the thiolate anion RS- , the redn. efficiency of compds. potential with a decrease in pH value. Building on the result that millimolar concns. of thiol compds. in aq. allow reversible, facile switching of small org. fluorophores, the authors performed super-resoln.

imaging of the cytoskeletal network of fixed cells with an exemplary selection of eight different org. For immunofluorescence imaging of microtubules, COS-7 cells were stained with primary antibodies and then with fluorescently labeled secondary antibodies. Sauer, M. Single-Molecule Localization Microscopy in Eukaryotes. Chemical Reviews Washington, DC, United States , 11 , CODEN: CHREAY ; ISSN: A review. fluorescence imaging by photoactivation or photoswitching of single fluorophores and position detn. localization microscopy, SMLM provides microscopic images with sub-diffraction spatial resoln. This technol. has enabled new insights into how proteins are organized in a cellular context, with a spatial resoln. approaching virtually the mol. A unique strength of SMLM is that it delivers mol. This allows quant. access to cellular structures, for example, how proteins are distributed and organized and how they interact with other biomols.

Ultimately, it is even possible to det. protein nos. in cells and the no. of subunits in a protein complex. SMLM thus has the potential to pave the way toward a better understanding of how cells function at the mol. In this review, the authors describe how SMLM has contributed new knowledge in eukaryotic biol. data extd. from SMLM images. Bates, M. Multicolor Super-Resolution Imaging with Photo-Switchable Fluorescent Probes. Science , , , DOI: Recent advances in far-field optical nanoscopy have enabled fluorescence imaging with a spatial resoln. of 20 to 50 nm. Multicolor super-resoln. imaging, however, remains a challenging task. Here, the authors introduce a family of photoswitchable fluorescent probes and demonstrate multicolor stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy STORM. Each probe consists of a photoswitchable "reporter" fluorophore that can be cycled between fluorescent and dark states, and an "activator" that facilitates photoactivation of the reporter.

Combinatorial pairing of reporters and activators allows the creation of probes with many distinct colors. Iterative, color-specific activation of sparse subsets of these probes allows their localization with nanometer accuracy, enabling the construction of a super-resoln. STORM image. Using this approach, the authors demonstrate multicolor imaging of DNA model samples and mammalian cells with to nm resoln. This technique will facilitate direct visualization of mol. interactions at the nanometer scale. Lampe, A. Multi-Colour Direct STORM with Red Emitting Carbocyanines. Cell , , — , DOI: Biology of the Cell , 4 , CODEN: BCELDF ; ISSN: Background information. Single mol. methods have become important tools to study nanoscale structures in cell biol. However, the complexity of multi-color applications has prevented them from being widely used amongst biologists. Direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy dSTORM offers a simple way to perform single mol.

imaging without the need for an activator fluorophore and compatible with many conventionally used fluorophores. The search for the ideal dye pairs suitable for dual-color dSTORM has been compromised by the fact that fluorophores spectrally apt for dual-color imaging differ with respect to the optimal buffer conditions required for photoswitching and the generation of prolonged non-fluorescent OFF states. We present a novel variant of dSTORM that combines advantages of spectral demixing with the buffer compatible blinking properties of red emitting carbocyanine dyes, spectral demixing dSTORM SD-dSTORM. In contrast to previously published work, SD-dSTORM requires reduced laser power and fewer imaging frames for the faithful reconstruction of super-resolved biol.

In addn. available rather than custom-made probes and does not rely on potentially error-prone cross-talk correction, thus allowing reliable co-localization. SD-dSTORM presents a significant advance towards user-friendly single mol. localisation-based super-resoln. microscopy combining advantages of state-of-the-art methodologies to perform fast, reliable and efficient multi-color dSTORM. Bossi, M. Multicolor Far-Field Fluorescence Nanoscopy through Isolated Detection of Distinct Molecular Species. Nano Lett. Bossi, Mariano; Folling, Jonas; Belov, Vladimir N. Nano Letters , 8 8 , CODEN: NALEFD ; ISSN: By combining the photoswitching and localization of individual fluorophores with spectroscopy on the single mol. level, we demonstrate simultaneous multicolor imaging with low crosstalk and down to 15 nm spatial resoln. using only two detection color channels.

The applicability of the method to biol. specimens is demonstrated on mammalian cells. The combination of far-field fluorescence nanoscopy with the recording of a single switchable mol. species at a time opens up a new class of functional imaging techniques. Zhang, Z. Ultrahigh-Throughput Single-Molecule Spectroscopy and Spectrally Resolved Super-Resolution Microscopy. Methods , 12 , — , DOI: Ultrahigh-throughput single-molecule spectroscopy and spectrally resolved super-resolution microscopy. Nature Methods , 12 10 , CODEN: NMAEA3 ; ISSN: in labeled cells in minutes, which consequently enabled spectrally resolved, 'true-color' super-resoln.

The method, called spectrally resolved stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy SR-STORM , achieved cross-talk-free three-dimensional 3D imaging for four dyes 10 nm apart in emission spectrum. Excellent resoln. was obtained for every channel, and 3D localizations of all mols.

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